Meaning of life Essay Example for Free

Meaning of life Essay Existentialism as a philosophy is concerned with the meaning of our existence and the non- existence of a spiritual figure to mould our being. This philosophy was created as early the early 1900s, but mid 20th Century Philosophers Albert Camus and Jean Paul Sartre are seen as the fathers the movement. Existentialism can be seen as a major influence on the Theatre of the Absurd as it is uses theatrical effects in order to show the way in which man uses endless and futile ways to distract from the meaninglessness of his existence. Other themes that are evident in absurd plays are that of the devaluation of language and our entrapment in an Absurd existence. Devaluation of Language As characters who speak completely different languages, we are unable to communicate verbally and are forced to using gestures and appropriate sounds. The language barrier causes a lot of frustration and exhaustion and at many times conflict between our two characters because no matter how important or trivial the words that the person is saying- they serve no purpose as neither understands the other. After a short fight, my character begins to rant in her language, leaving Niina’s character confused and unsure of what to do. She then retreats back to her place on the opposite part of the ‘island’ whilst I continue to express my frustration. The space between us symbolises our aloneness at being able to communicate directly with each other. Entrapment in an Absurd Existence As two people who do not understand each other and are stranded on an island there is not much that can be done. As a means to fill our boredom my character started to hum a tune and was slowly but surely joined by my companion with a drum beat that she had added. Niina’s character who is very pessimistic comes to her senses and realises the meaninglessness of the entire exercise. This drives her to attempt to kill herself. An absurd existence is one which is full of meaningless distractions and once a person realises this they come into conflict with their existence and is driven towards two different choices: To free oneself from the meaninglessness- which Niina’s character attempted to do, or to hope for change or for the discovery of meaning like my character. We are adrift in a world devoid of purpose As our characters use diversions to avoid facing the meaninglessness of our lives, like how our two characters play a game to pass the time. But as time goes on, Niina’s character voices her frustration of the situation: that, having already been stranded for some time, we are not likely to be rescued. This presents the question of whether there is a point of living when there is neither future ahead nor purpose for you. This is another contributing reason as to why Niina’s character attempts to kill her self. My character has a different way of viewing this situation as she has held on to her faith to give her purpose. She has also found purpose in trying to keep her companion from killing herself. The island improvisation reflected the strong themes of Existentialism in Absurd Theatre through the staging of the conflict created between our two conflicting characters. Unable to linguistically understand each other, language as a tool of communication becomes useless and we are forced use a small game in order to distract ourselves from the reality of the situation and the meaninglessness of our existence on an island where we have no purpose. -

Human right issues Essay Example for Free

Human right issues Essay Indias earliest settlements are believed to have developed in the culture hearths of the Indus Valley around 2600 B.C.E. and in the Ganges Valley around 1500 B.C.E. These societies were mainly composed of ethnic Dravidians who had an economy based on commerce and agricultural trade. Aryan tribes are believed to have then invaded the area after they migrated into the Indian subcontinent from the northwest. It is thought that they introduced the caste system which is still common in many parts of India today. During the 4th century B.C.E, Alexander the Greatintroduced Greek practices into the region when he expanded across Central Asia. During the 3rd century B.C.E, the Mauryan Empire came into power in India and was most successful under its emperor, Ashoka. Throughout subsequent periods Arab, Turkish and Mongol peoples entered India and in 1526, a Mongol Empire was established there, which later expanded throughout most of northern India. During this time, such landmarks as the Taj Mahal were also constructed. Much of Indias history after the 1500s was then dominated by British influences. The first British colony was in 1619 with English East India Company at Surat. Shortly thereafter, permanent trading stations opened in present-day Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata. British influence then continued to expand from these initial trading stations and by the 1850s, most of India and other countries such as Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh were controlled by Britain. By the late 1800s, India began working toward independence from Britain but it did not come until the 1940s however when Indian citizens began to unite and British Labor Prime Minister Clement Attlee began to push for Indias independence. On August 15, 1947, India officially became a dominion within the Commonwealth and Jawaharlal Nehru was named Indias Prime Minister. Indias first constitution was written shortly thereafter on January 26, 1950 and at that time, it officially became a member of the British Commonwealth. Since gaining its independence, India has undergone significant growth in terms of its population and economy however, there were periods of instability in the country and much of its population today lives extreme poverty. Government of India Today Indias government is a federal republic with two legislative bodies. The legislative bodies consist of the Council of States, also called Rajya Sabha, and the Peoples Assembly, which is called the Lok Sabha. Indias executive branch has a chief of state and a head of government. There are also 28 states and seven union territories in India. Economics Land Use in India Indias economy today is a varied mix of small village farming, modern large scale agriculture as well as modern industries. The service sector is also an incredibly large part of Indias economy as many foreign companies such places as call centers located in the country. In addition to the service sector, Indias largest industries are textiles, food processing, steel, cement, mining equipment, petroleum, chemicals and computer software. Indias agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, tea, sugarcane, dairy products and livestock. Geography and Climate of India The geography of India is diverse and can be divided into three main regions. The first is the rugged, mountainous Himalayan region in the northern part of the country, while the second is called the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It is in this region that most of Indias large-scale agriculture takes place. The third geographic region in India is the plateau region in the southern and  central portions of the country. India also has three major river systems which have large deltas that take over a large portion of the land. These are the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. Indias climate is also varied but is tropical in the south and mainly temperate in the north. The country also has a pronounced monsoon season from June to September in it southern portion. More Facts about India †¢ Indias people are 80% Hindu, 13% Muslim and 2% Christian. These divisions have historically caused tensions between different religious groups. †¢ Hindi and English are Indias official languages, but there are also 17 regional languages that are considered official. †¢ India has several cities that have undergone place name changes such as Bombay being renamed Mumbai. These changes were mainly done in an effort to return the city names to local dialects, as opposed to British translations.

A Critical Evaluation Of Selected Teaching Materials English Language Essay

A Critical Evaluation Of Selected Teaching Materials English Language Essay This assignment is aimed at providing a critical evaluation of one of the modules (units) in the textbook New Cutting Edge, Pre-intermediate level in a relevant context for its possibly best use. This is an internal evaluation of a unit, in McDonough and Shaws (1993) terms, rather than just an external evaluation based on the statements of the publishers. It is well known that no textbook can be so generic to function in an ideal manner in all specific contexts, but if chosen with tact, textbooks can provide a general framework for an optimal use of time and resources at the hand of teachers and learners. The lack of an objective standard to evaluate textbooks should not bring this significant investigation to a halt because in the long run nothing can replace the care and discretion in selection of the best available resource. Experience together with skill in this area would definitely serve learning. Introduction There are different views on the use of textbook, from those who put it at the heart of English language programmes (Sheldon 1988: 237) to those who consider their use as problematic (Swales 1980). A reasonable stance is a halfway between a long standing and extreme arguments on whether textbook makes all the difference or makes no difference whatsoever. Despite being far from perfect, textbooks remain the most suitable means of providing structure (Hutchinson and Torres 1994) and they currently are regarded as an inevitable resource for language learning with its capacity and relative effect depending on context and the situations (Cunningsworth 1979, McGrath, 2002). Reasons for evaluation of textbooks A general perception is formed, as Sheldon (1988) have noted, that regards coursebooks as temporary goods for profit rather than treating educational quality. McGrath (2002) relates the utility as a direct function of informed judgement of a teacher on the appropriateness of a particular textbook for a given classroom. Selection, rejection, addition and modification are four processes that teachers can use to adapt coursebooks to their needs (McGrath, 2002: 59). Richards (2001: 260) contends that because most teachers are not material writers themselves, they should adapt already available textbooks to fit students needs and seek ever opportunity to be creative and supplement the textbook exercises or activities whenever necessary. a teacher will find the need to modify, or expand some parts while omitting other parts, or reorganising the content in textbook as appropriate, a fact which is also very true for Cutting Edge. It should also be noted that book may be perfectly suitable for one situation but short of most parameters of a fair selection in another situation. Thus, its evaluation in isolation is impossible. Thats why Richards (2001: 256-257) explains that studying the role of textbook, teachers and learners in the curriculum takes precedence over textbook evaluation. Methods for evaluation There are various methods and several perspectives for implementing evaluation. One perspective to textbook evaluation is what Hutchinson and Waters (1987) present simply as an analytical matching process to available solutions, but a generally agreed upon criteria for evaluation can be summarised as the focus on design, linguistic content, topic, and logistics (McGrath, 2002). Evaluation an also be done internally or externally. The fundamental methods to evaluate a textbook are listed by McGrath (2002) as the impressionistic, the checklist, and the in-depth methods. Evaluation using impressionstic method Cunningsworth (1995) holds that impressions are useful as a general introduction and a quick overview which helps choosing the coursebook. The coursebooks title New Cutting Edge may not be very revealing but it is exciting combined with its cover images. The size is convenient and the representations look multicultural. Following Cunningsworths checklist (1995), the topic of the module, important firsts, is a key point to consider whether the as it suggests variety and raises real interest, and enables learners to expand their cultural awareness. It provides great potential for student interaction. Tomlinson (2003) argues that graphic details such as opening pictures have a great impact on learners. In module 2, the photo of women in very chic dresses is not readily connecting to the topic or the other one near that, too. Images with more motion could disclose the energy of the topic. The photos in the first two pages are not the units strongest point since they are culturally loaded or at best unfamiliar to foreign language learner but photos in page 3 and onward are very engaging, funny and expressive. Another good point is the balanced focus on form and meaning which go side by side, and column by column. Following is an adapted evaluation checklist (drawn from McGrath 2002). It provides a brief overview of appearance and physical details based on an impressionistic method. Practical considerations affordable Yes weight (for transportation purposes) Yes Support for teaching and learning Teachers book available? Yes Cassettes/CD-Rom available? Yes Suitable for self-study? Yes Context Relevance Suitable for length of course? No Suitable for aims of course? Yes Suitable for learners level? Suitable for learners cultural background? Suitable for teachers? Required resources available? Likely appeal to learners Layout Visuals Topics Yes Yes (partially) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes (partially) The impressions may be more accurate for experienced teachers but they are often very subjective and simplistic. The in-depth methods, on the other hand, deserve such a space which is beyond the confines of this paper. The practicality of checklist method is highlighted in Cunningsworth (1995: 2). Therefore, several methods and perspectives including checklist methods worth consideration in this paper. To evaluate the book part I selected which is followed by an evaluation from external and internal perspectives as well as a micro analysis. Evaluation through Checklists Cunningsworth (1995) developed a checklist which is widely used for evaluation of textbooks. This is one the first checklists that gives a broad analysis (Tomlinson 2003). It should be noted that any checklist has its own advantages and disadvantages and they should be adapted to meet the needs of a specific context (McGrath, 2002: 27). Cunningsworths checklist (1995) is powerful in addressing language content, skills, topics as well as methods but ignores the role of culture and institution. McGrath (2002) pinpoints the principles underlying the design of materials. Checklist is adaptable such as the questionnaire Rahman and Sinha (2010) used. It is given to both teacher and students after background information, to elicit their appraisal of the textbook via several items assessing its layout and physical make up, subject matter, vocabulary and structure, exercises and activities. The questionnaire given to teachers has an extra section on their evaluation of aims and goals and has more items on each of the above mentioned sections. Almost any quality that teachers and language teaching methodology would deem essential for textbooks can be evaluated through a checklist. For instance, learner-centeredness is a quality that can be fostered in a textbook in a form of gradual independence from teacher and developing students self confidence in using English (Cunningsworth, 1995). Jun, Hua and Huiru used an evaluation questionnaire to this effect from which applying a gist would be useful. Firstly, communication skills are developed fairly well through the New Cutting Edge since we have two speaking task about important firsts through both an open-ended personal and a picture-aided controlled activity. A scaffold for doing this task is in the 3rd page where a sentence completion task required pair work and comparison activity about personal information an earlier in the module. Most other tasks are fill-in-gap grammar, vocabulary and writing exercises as well as pronunciation practice. Pair work encourages cooperativ e learning and pronunciation practice leads to an awareness of linguistic skills. The topic important first can relate very well to students lives, views and feelings and offers options to cater for learner differences. Answer key on page 158 is a helpful reference material, but there is little sign of indexing and internet technology that enhance independent language learning. External Evaluation The publishes claims that New Cutting Edge follows a Communicative Language Approach to teaching English which supports learners all-inclusive development in their language by incorporating all language skills. Students are promised to see improvement in their functional English and their ability to communicate on a daily basis. It is also said that the contents hold the interest and respond to the needs of students at this level. Topics are wide-ranging, attractive and up-to-date and designs and images are so vivid that makes this book superior to other coursebooks. The activities in each unit are described as so engaging that can lead students to a comfortable use of English outside classroom in real life situations and that exercises both focus on essential grammatical points and help learners to communicate spontaneously enriched by an authentic sample of reading, listening, writing, speaking, listening and pronunciation activities. Units of  New Cutting Edge  correspond to the Common European Framework which allows students and teachers to simply check the learning outcomes against a generally recognised standard. The coursebook also boasts of a very clear and cumulative structure in consecutive modules that gradually build on each other to improve grammatical points, key vocabulary, and various skills as well as revision and practice opportunities. The supplementary materials for New Cutting Edge are in sufficient, supply which is deemed as suitable because of its interactive nature  and its various features which contains class/ student audio cassettes and CDs, a workbook with key, as well as teachers books, tests, videos, mini dictionary and links to other companion websites. (www.longman.com/cuttingedge) Internal evaluation The New Cutting Edge series have the characteristics of modern textbooks Haines (1996) lists such as being multi-componential (grammar, vocabulary, reading, speaking, writing and a study tip in one module), commercialised, and culturally sensitive as well as having a rich design which consist of lively pictures, visual aids and diagrams, indentations, word clouds, bullets and numbering. The first page begins with a catchy headline and itemised summary besides pictures at the top. Even in grammar section simple pictures and design are intended to help learning while in vocabulary section, more expressive images are used (human faces for words of feeling). The visually attractive cover of this book is a plus like Headway series because as McGrath (2002) claims, the cover, title or sizes of a book are important factors in motivating learners. Evaluation of textbook with micro-analysis of the chosen module (unit) New Cutting Edge, Pre-intermediate by Cunnigham and Moor taps several language skills and subskills. It is a textbook intended for teaching English as a Foreign Language. The New in title suggest maturation from an earlier version besides having a tricky commercial effect. The authors claim that it just got sharper and fresher and easier to use (New Cutting Edge, Pre-intermediate Students Book, back cover). The book is composed of fifteen modules, each containing eight pages, with additional resources such as tapescripts, mini-dictionary and consolidation material. Auxiliary matter consists of a teachers resource book, workbook with and without key editions, CDs and audio cassettes for students use and a separate cassette for classroom use as well as an accompanying website, tests and videos. The book under review is in general support of an integrated skills approach and this second unit has a particular emphasis on pronunciation. Texts for reading are kept short. Writing is practiced at the end of module after speaking tasks. This means productive skills are last in order of presentation. The colourful layout and reasonable placing of items makes it look smart but the photographs are not of highest quality but the illustrations are and cartoons are lively. Closer scrutiny follows in a tabulated form. Topic: Important Firsts. Potential to enhance speculation, but may be too short. Language Focus: Past Simple and Time Phrases A good continue to a tense in previous module (unit). Timely to introduce time phrases (matching with topic) Vocabulary and Wordspot Thematic presentation of new vocabulary with visuals is very engaging. Diagrams in wordspot can consolidate that but it may be difficult for learners at this level. Speaking The first task with questions which makes learners to talk about generally activates the outgoing and breaks the ice for other students who seem to be clueless. The second task is aided with pictures and scaffolds the shy to talk about other people. Pronunciation There are three areas in this unit to deal with pronunciation of past tense regular and stress, a bit above the right size, relatively. Listening There are 11 parts for which there is need to listening and tape, which is relatively high. They address not only the listening part itself but also pronunciation and stress practice as well as checking answers to vocabulary and grammatical exercises. Reading Reading parts are short which may be good at this stage of course if it helps fast pace. May be a supplementary reading is required for faster students. Writing The writing practice comes at the end and reading writing integrated activity. Review In the practice section, grammar and vocabulary exercises dominate and there is no pronunciation exercise despite the weight it has throughout the unit. i: Sequencing ii: Methodology i: Sequencing of skills is generally good with some skills practice between. An exception should perhaps be made for writing: it should not be the last or the least or seem so. Because of its learning potential for foreign language learners that often go unrealised. ii: it follows a task based syllabus and a mixture of communicative approach to language teaching with form-focused instruction as it brings language focus into attention. Conclusion This evaluation once again confirm the point that a quest to find a perfect coursebook maybe unrealistic, but there will be a best book for any situation (Grant 1987). The organization of the material in this units as a sample of the book in question, suggests ways that language can be integrated in the diverse aspects of life.  However, students with more enthusiasm can be given an opportunity to produce more output. My recommendation is to supplement the material with more tasks requiring productive language use such as writing and speaking and that there be more room for discussion and illustrations or examples. They can be set as homework, or if time allows, at the end of session. In all, I found this book very inspiring and highly recommend it for use in an appropriate level and context.

From Mind to Supermind: A Statement of Aurobindonian Approach :: Philosophy Philosophical Papers

From "Mind" to "Supermind": A Statement of Aurobindonian Approach ABSTRACT: In contrast to Western theories of mind, Aurobindo’s theory is comprehensive and holistic. This theory derives from his ontology. With respect to mind, Aurobindo contends that evolution will not stop with homo sapien. Rather, he posits higher levels of consciousness: Higher Mind, Illumined Mind, Intuitive Mind, Overmind, and Supermind. Higher Mind is an intermediary between the Truth-light above and the human mind. Illumined Mind is Spiritual light. Intuitive Mind possesses swift revelatory vision and luminous insight. Overmind acts as an intermediary between Supermind and Intuitive Mind. Supermind contains the self-determining truths of Divine Consciousness; it is the Real-Idea inherent in all cosmic force and existence. The various concepts and theories of mind prevalent today have had their origin and development in the West. They can be classified as : Psycho-analytical (cf., Sigmund Freud, Karl Jung, A. Adler), Behavioural (cf., Gilbert Ryle), Gestalt (cf., Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler), Physiological (cf., J. J. C. Smart, U. T. Place, Feigl), Psycho-physical (cf., Karl Popper), Evolutionary (cf., Henry Bergson, Samuel Alexander, Whitehead), Functional (cf., R. Rorty, Peter Smith, O. R. Jones), and Mental or Homo Sapiens-oriented (cf., Roger Penrose). The outcome of all such discussions is that "mind" is mysterious and beyond all scientific explanation. According to the main contemporary view, in particular, `there is something essential in human understanding that is not possible to simulate by any computational means’. This indicates that the nature of mind continues to remain a source of acute discomfort to the Western thinkers. Even their new empirical findings regardin g the highly complex mental acitivity is dubious. The object of this paper is to submit that in this context of the West’s indecisiveness and perplexity, Aurobindo’s approach to mind comes as a breath of fresh air. Aurobindo’s theory of mind is as much "inclusive" of the essence of the Western schools of thinkers cited above, as it is "contrastive". The pioneers in this area from William James and McDougall through Freud, Jung and Adler etc, established the paradigm of the "iceberg" with reference to the nature of mind. This can be designated as the "infra-structural" theory of the entity. The views of the "evolutionists" (Darwin, Laplace, Bergson, S. Alexander, Whitehead, for instance,) are "different" but not "enriching". All of them fail to recognise that any infra-structure can, and must have, logically speaking, a "supra-structure" as well, in order to be complete and holistic.

Three Little Pigs :: essays research papers

The Three Little Pigs   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Once upon a time, there were three little pigs that were kicked out of their birth home by their parents and told to live life on there own. These three little pigs were ready to build their own homes and get secure jobs. The first little pig was lazy, overweight and did not like to work at all. He wanted to take the easy path, and built a house out of straw which could barely support it’s own weight. After he was finished building his insecure house of straw, he decided to visit his brothers. He danced down the dirt path, to see how they were progressing with their homes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second little pig was building himself a house also, but he too, like his brother, was a lazy little pig that did not like to work much. He also decided to take the easy path of life, and make his home simply out of sticks. In no time at all, he finished building the cheap house. However, it too was insecure. After the work was completed, the second little pig was free to do what he liked to best. He decided to dance and play his fiddle. As he played his fiddle, his brother, the first little pig arrived tooting on his stainless steel flute. They both danced while the second little pig sang: â€Å"I built my house out of sticks,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I built my house out of twigs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With a hey diddle-diddle   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I play on my fiddle,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  And dance all kinds of jigs.† Then, the two brothers made their way down the treacherous till they came upon the third brother.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The third brother, the hard working egotistical type, chose to build his house out of Acme brick. He knew the big bad wolf was waiting until they got out on their own, before he tried one of his indecorous attempts at catching a feast. Rapidly he worked, slap, slosh, slap, laying red bricks, and smoothing fresh made mortar in between each layer of bricks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Ha ha ha!† laughed his two brothers as he steadily worked.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Come down and play with us!† the two little pigs yelled, but the busy little pig kept on working even harder than he was before they came. Then he yelled down to them: â€Å"I built my house of stones.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I built my house of bricks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I have no chance To sing and dance,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For work and play don’t mix.

A Mongoliod Child Handling Shells On The Beach by Robert Snyder :: essays research papers

Diction, Theme and Imagery in Richard Snyders Intro To Poetry "A Mongoloid Child Handling Shells on the Beach" When you first read Richard Snyders narrative poem, "A Mongoloid Child Handling Shells on the Beach", it may be perceived that the poem is indeed about a child, happily gathering shells upon the shore. However, if we closely consider the diction and connotations that Synder uses, we can speculate that the meaning of the poem depicts a deeper and darker theme. The title itself gives us an idea from the beginning. The word Mongoloid, as identified in Websters New World Dictionary (675), is an early term for Down's Syndrome, a state of mental retardation. Therefore I believe that the poem represents the child as an outcast from the norm of society. There are several words in the text that refer to the child that we usually wouldn't associate with youth. An early clue would again be found in the title, "A Mongoloid Child Handling Shells on the Beach". Notice that Snyder used the word "handling" instead of playing or collecting, words wich we might think of while envisioning a young girl investigating sea shells. Snyder also uses the word 'slow' to describe the child on more than one occasion, as we see in line one and line eight : "She turns them over in her slow hands/ ...hums back to it its slow vowels." Yet another example could be in line four, which reads: " they are the calmest things on this sand." Calm is yet another word that we would not most likely use to portray a young child. It very well could be that the author is trying to paint a picture of her impairment and symbolize her condition through her actions. Considering Snyder depicted the ocean as "..the mazarine maze,"(3) instead of simply stating that it is the "deep blue sea", it is easy to speculate that the ocean represents life itself. Her being outside of the water while all the other children are swimming is a key example of her being isolated. The way that she is presented, which is slow and rather solemn, contrasts with the other children who are "rough as surf, gay as their nesting towels."(6). I feel that this kind of symbolism is repeated throughout the remainder of the poem. The sea shells, for instance, are another important representation of her isolation. It reads in line three: " broken bits from a mazarine maze,". If we look at the mazarine maze as being life, and the shells are broken bits of it washed ashore, it becomes clear that

Ovarian Cancer Research Paper Essay

Introduction Ovarian cancer is one of the most common types of cancer among women. It is considered to be one of the most common types of cancer of the female reproductive system. According to McGuire and Markman (2003), â€Å"despite advances in treatment over the last 40 years, ovarian cancer is the second most commonly diagnosed gynaecological malignancy, and causes more deaths than any other cancer of the reproductive system† (p. 4). Despite the fact that ovarian cancer occurs less frequently than uterine cancer, it is more aggressive and can occur at any age. In addition, it does not manifest itself in the first stages, and in most cases are diagnosed only in the later ones. All the malignant ovarian tumors are subdivided into epithelial, germ or stromal cell types (cancer). These cancers have the highest incidence among all other tumors. (Jordan, S., Green, A., & Webb, P. 2006 p.109-116). Signs and symptoms of ovarian cancer â€Å"Ovarian cancer has often been called the â€Å"silent killer† because symptoms are not thought to develop until advanced stages when chance of cure is poor† (Goff, Mandel, Melancon, & Muntz, 2004, p. 2705). That is why the symptoms of ovarian cancer are not specific and can be disguised as other more common diseases, such as diseases of the digestive system or urinary system. The reason for the lack of clearly defined symptoms is that ovarian cancer develops in the abdominal cavity and does not cause discomfort for the patient. The main sign of the presence of most disease is a constant presence of symptoms or their worsening. For example, ovarian cancer symptoms are distinguished by their immutability of the manifestations: they progress gradually. (Goff, B. A., Mandel, L. S., Melancon, C. H., Muntz, H. G., 2004 p. 2705-2712). The main symptoms of ovarian cancer may include the following: 1. Feeling of overeating, swelling or bloating; 2. Urgent need to urinate; 3. Pain or discomfort in the pelvic area. 4. Constant indigestion or nausea; 5. Sudden, unexplained changes of stools, which include diarrhea or constipation; 6. Frequent urination; 7. Appetite loss; 8. Rapid weight loss or rapid weight gain; 9. Increased waist circumference, which can be seen by the fact that the clothing suddenly became small; 10. Pain during intercourse; 11. Permanent weakness; 12. Pain in the lumbar area, abdominal pain. The growing tumor extends through the fallopian tubes, causing the lower abdominal pain on the affected side. The large tumors can compress the large intestine that is manifested in bloating or constipation. (Goff, B. A., Mandel, L. S., Melancon, C. H., Muntz, H. G., 2004, p. 2705-2712). In addition, ovarian cancer is characterized by metastases at the â€Å"gate† of the liver that leads to the development of ascites – an accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity due to the compression of the hepatic portal vein. (Goff, B. A., Mandel, L. S., Melancon, C. H., Muntz, H. G., 2004, p. 2705-2712). The later stages (3 and 4) of ovarian cancer are characterized by more severe symptoms, such as intoxication and anemia. The doctors usually can diagnose ovarian cancer for three months after the first symptoms. However, sometimes it is necessary to wait for six months or even more in order to put the final diagnosis. (Goff, B. A., M andel, L. S., Melancon, C. H., Muntz, H. G., 2004, p. 2705-2712). Causes of ovarian cancer Currently, the etiological factors of malignant ovarian tumors are not significantly determined. However, some researches have advanced several hypotheses about the etiology of epithelial ovarian tumors (Modugno et al., 2003, p. 439- 446). The first one being that ovarian cancer usually occurs when a tumor develops in one or both of a woman’s ovaries. (Modugno et al., 2003, p. 439- 446). Another hypothesis is based on the concept of â€Å"incessant ovulation† (early menarche, late menopause, a small number of pregnancies, the shortening of lactation). Remember, the constant ovulations cause serious damage to epithelial inclusions in the ovarian cortex. The following hypothesis shows that ovarian cancer, most often, is caused by the glandular epithelial cells, which produce hormones. Therefore, a violation of hormonal regulation leads to the changes of malignant epithelial cells. Ovarian cancer often develops in the presence of chronic inflammation, benign tumors or ovarian cysts. (Jordan, S., Green, A., & Webb, P., 2006, p. 109-116). Risk factors It is difficult enough to determine the risk factors for ovarian cancer. However, it is believed that the healthy women, who have relatives diagnosed with breast cancer, ovarian cancer or uterine cancer, are at risk of those diseases. Supporting this point of view, Cannistra (2004) states that â€Å"a strong family history of ovarian or breast cancer is the most important risk factor† for women. Too often ovarian cancer develops after menopause. However, the risk is increased only after 60 years. In turn, Cannistra (2004) supports this information and adds that â€Å"the median age of patients with ovarian cancer is 60 years, and the average lifetime risk for women is about 1 in 70†. (p. 2519-2522) Despite the fact that most ovarian cancers are diagnosed in postmenopausal women, the disease can also occur in women who are in the premenopausal period. Women, who have been pregnant at least once, are less likely to have ovarian cancer. The use of birth control pills also reduces this probability. (Kuper, H., Cramer, D. W., & Titus-Ernstoff, L., 2002., p. 455-463). The appearance of cysts is a normal process that occurs during ovulation in women who are premenopausal. However, cysts formed in the postmenopausal period have a great chance to cause cancer. Women are at increased risk if they are having trouble conceiving. Environment factors also affect the incidence of ovarian cancer. (Kuper, H., Cramer, D. W., & Titus-Ernstoff, L., 2002., p. 455-463). Ovarian cancer can be primary, secondary and metastatic. The malignant tumors, which primarily affect the ovary, are known as primary cancer. Secondary ovarian cancer (cystadenocarcinoma) occurs due to the benign or borderline tumors. Metastatic ovarian cancer (Krukenberg tumor) is a spreading of the primary tumor, which is often located in the gastro-intestinal tract, stomach, breast, thyroid or uterus. (Rossing, M. A., Tang, M. C., Flagg, E. W., Weiss, L. K., Wicklund, K. G., & Weiss, N. S.,2006, p. 713-720). Ovarian cancer staging It is possible to trace the following ovarian cancer stages, such as: Stage 1 — limited to one or both ovaries; †¢ 1A) cone ovary is affected, no ascites; †¢ 1B) both ovaries are affected, no ascites; †¢ 1C) appearance of the tumor on the surface of the ovary (s), ascites. Stage 2 — disease spreads in the small pelvis; †¢ 2A) affection of the uterus or fallopian tubes; †¢ 2B) affection of other tissues of the small pelvis; †¢ 2C) tumor on the surface of the ovary (s), ascites. Stage 3 — affection of the peritoneum, metastases in the liver and other organs within the abdomen, affection of groin lymph nodes; †¢ 3A) — microscopic peritoneal metastasis beyond the pelvis; †¢ 3B) — metastasis less than 2 cm in size; †¢ 3C) — metastases more than 2 cm in diameter, involving retroperitoneal and inguinal lymph nodes. Stage 4 — distant metastases. (Rossing, M. A., Tang, M. C., Flagg, E. W., Weiss, L. K., Wicklund, K. G., & Weiss, N. S., 2006., p. 713-720). Thus, these are the basic ovarian cancer stages, which help to find out how widespread ovarian cancer is. Classification of ovarian tumors 1) Surface epithelial-stromal tumors – the largest group of benign epithelial ovarian tumors are cystadenoma. 2) Sex cord-stromal tumors with a minimum number of elements have the structure of sex cord-tech fibroids and may contain small nests or tubules of sex cord-type cells. 3) Germ cell tumors are teratomas, which in most cases are benign. . (Rossing, M. A., Tang, M. C., Flagg, E. W., Weiss, L. K., Wicklund, K. G., & Weiss, N. S., 2006., p. 713-720). Ovarian cancer treatment Ovarian cancer can be suspected by a gynecologist during a standard pelvic examination. However, â€Å"much of the problem is that ovarian cancer is often detected too late. Not everyone has symptoms, and the classic ones—bloating, pelvic pain, difficulty eating and urinary frequency, are easily confused with other maladies† (Johannes, 2010, para. 6). That is why the doctor should regularly check the pelvis and conduct the palpation of the uterus, vagina, tubes, ovaries, bladder, and rectum. In addition, it is essential to use a pelvic organ ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), radionuclide studies (scintigraphy), intestinal endoscopy, as well as a laparoscopic examination of the pelvis with a biopsy. (Zhang, M., Xie, X., Lee, A. H., & Binns, C. W., 2004, p. 83-89). Remember that ovarian cancer does not have any obvious symptoms in the early stages. Therefore, the annual gynecological examination and ultrasonography of the groin area are very important. Main tr eatment usually involves surgery, chemotherapy, and sometimes radiotherapy. Depending on the extent of tumor spread, surgery can be performed in various capacities. The obtained material must be sent for further examination. If the tumor significantly extends, the doctor should conduct the courses of chemotherapy, and then perform surgery. Mainly, surgery is performed in a radical way: the uterus with the tubes, pelvic tissue with lymph nodes, and omentum in the form of an apron are removed completely. Gland contains lymph nodes, which are often affected by metastases. Ovarian cancer has the ability to affect a healthy ovary through the cross metastases. (Rossing, M. A., Tang, M. C., Flagg, E. W., Weiss, L. K., Wicklund, K. G., & Weiss, N. S., 2006., p. 713-720). Therefore, it is very important to remove both ovaries in order to preserve the life of the patient. Taking into consideration the aggressive nature of the disease, chemotherapy is considered to be a required component of ovarian cancer treatment. The standard chemotherapy protocol consists of two major drugs, such as Carboplatin and Taxol. (Kiani, F., Knutsen, S., Singh, P., Ursin, G., & Fraser, G., 2006, p. 137-146). Medication duration, dosage and additional drugs are determined individually: in accordance with the type of tumor, the degree of spreading and other indicators. It is possible to conduct the additional courses of chemotherapy after surgery. Ovarian cancer treatment has its specific nature. It is connected with the fact that the tumor in the ovary cannot be seen. Therefore, in cases when the doctor does not operate the patient, the only way to be sure that the tumor is gone completely is use a high-dose chemotherapy. The main features of chemotherapy for ovarian cancer Chemotherapy is performed in almost all the stages of the disease. Sometimes it is used to fight against the tumor, sometimes to contain the tumor and prevent it’s spreading, sometimes in order to delay the total defeat of the body. In any case, chemotherapy for ovarian cancer is proved as an effective fighting method. Chemotherapy does serious damage to the body, but its main advantage is that the drugs work in the body, and thus blocks the development of the last stage of cancer, as well as the spreading to adjacent organs. Chemotherapy for ovarian cancer has a greater chance of success than radiotherapy, because it comes to the heart of the problem. The most important thing is that chemotherapy can get rid of cancer cells, which have already started to progress, but have not yet appeared in the specific symptoms. In other words, it can nip with the problem in the bud. Thus, if the use of chemotherapy for ovarian cancer is offered, do not refuse to do it. This is one of the few chances that could save your life, and give a reason to hope for the restoration of a normal life and future. In some cases, in addition to chemotherapy, the doctor can prescribe radiotherapy in order to kill the cancer cells. However, it is not commonly used and does not play an important role in the treatment of ovarian cancer. How to prevent the development of ovarian cancer? Every woman should know her vulnerabilities – â€Å"loopholes† through which cancer can penetrate into the body. Loophole 1: Late arrival to the gynecologist The annual preventive gynecological examination is required for all the women. Women, who have ovarian cancer, address to the doctor too late. This is due to the irregular visits to the gynecologist, because of this the initial stages of the disease go unnoticed. At first, cancer progresses usually without any of the characteristic symptoms. Subsequently, women can suffer from uterine bleeding, that doesn’t usually coincide with the period of menstruation and often ignore the abnormality. (Grilli, R., Apolone, G., Marsoni, S., Nicolucci, A., Zola, P., & Liberati, A., 1991, p.50-63). Women need to understand that the existence of such a symptom is a serious cause for concern, because any vaginal bleeding aside from the normal monthly menstruation may indicate a malfunction in the body. Another characteristic which women often ignore is lower abdominal pain. These pains can be short or long, weak, or strong. However, it is not desirable to immediately take analgesics to numb the unpleasant feelings. In such a case, it will be more reasonable to see a gynecologist. In addition, it is important to conduct an ultrasound of the uterus and ovaries. Usually a pelvic examination and ultrasound can detect ovarian cancer at the early stages. (Titus-Ernstoff, L., Rees, J. R., Terry, K. L., & Cramer, D. W., 2010, p. 201-207). The growth of ovarian tumors may be accompanied by low-grade temperature, shivering, and weakness. If you do not have an infectious disease and severe pain, but constant weakness and nausea, it is essential to consult with a gynecologist. (Titus-Ernstoff, L., Rees, J. R., Terry, K. L., & Cramer, D. W., 2010, p. 201-207). Loophole 2: Changes in hormonal balance Many women going through menopause also experience profound changes in the level of sex hormones. â€Å"An excess of female hormones can lead to ovarian tumors and other serious gynecological diseases† (Jordan, S. J., Purdie, D. M., Green, A. C., & Webb, P. M., 2004, p.359-365). The patients, who have had surgery on the uterus and ovaries, are also at increased risk. In addition to various infectious complications, they can also have a hormonal disorder. One of the reasons for ovarian cancer is an excess of sex hormone called gonadotropin, which leads to the development of other hormone-dependent tumors. (Jordan, S. J., Purdie, D. M., Green, A. C., & Webb, P. M., 2004, p.359-365). Therefore, women with hormonal malfunctions should be evaluated by a gynecologist with special attention. Loophole 3: Change of sexual partners and childlessness Sexual promiscuity often leads to frequent abortions. Every abortion is a serious hormonal disruption of the whole female body. The consequences of abortion are infertility, chronic diseases of the uterus and other reproductive organs. Sexual promiscuity can also lead to various infectious diseases of the genital organs. Some of these diseases often increase the risk of ovarian cancer. Nulliparous women suffer from ovarian cancer more often than those who have children. (King, M., Marks, J. H., Mandell, J. B., 2003, p. 643-646). Loophole 4: Unhealthy lifestyles It is known that women, who smoke or drink alcohol, are much more susceptible to ovarian cancer. Cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption weaken their health and therefore they have a higher risk of cancer. â€Å"In recent years, it is possible to trace the appearance of different cosmetics and dietary supplements. They contain the hormonal stimulants, which are very harmful for the female body† (Kiani, F., Knutsen, S., Singh, P., Ursin, G., & Fraser, G., 2006, p.137-146). It is necessary to carefully use such stimulants. Before taking these pills, it is essential to consult your primary care physician or gynecologist. Women, who have menopause, should eat a balanced diet full of vitamins and other nutrients (Kiani, F., Knutsen, S., Singh, P., Ursin, G., & Fraser, G., 2006, p.137-146). Furthermore, personal hygiene is vital to good health. Remember that any chronic diseases, especially concerning the sexual organs, weaken the immune system and increases the risk of tumor deve lopment. However, if diagnosed as having ovarian cancer don’t give up. Remember that timely access to a physician is the key to success. Tumors can be detected by the usual examination and then refined with the help of the ultrasound and analysis. If the disease is detected in an early stage, treatment will be more effective. In such a case, the doctor has the ability to combine surgical and medical treatment, without affecting the uterus and ovaries. Such patients can even get pregnant and give birth to a healthy baby. The later stages of ovarian cancer are characterized by more severe symptoms and can even lead to the complete removal of the ovaries, uterus and other organs affected by the tumor. Unfortunately, the survival rate of these patients is very low, and they often have relapse (McGuire, W.P., & Markman, M. (2003). Conclusion Taking the above-mentioned information into consideration, it is possible to draw a conclusion that ovarian cancer is often called the â€Å"silent killer† because clinically the first manifestations are associated with the spread of the tumor outside the ovary, and sometimes beyond the pelvis. Ovarian cancer can be divided into the following forms, such as primary, secondary, and metastatic. 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